Fried and grilled cooking methods and the widespread consumption of certain dishes may expose the population to elevated levels of potentially carcinogenic compounds, such as benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), acrylamide, and N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). This study aims to quickly estimate dietary exposure to these contaminants and assess the associated carcinogenic risk for several common Vietnamese fried and grilled dishes. The concentrations of the target compounds were obtained from the study showed that BaP, NDMA, and acrylamide are the groups of substances of greatest concern. The analytical results of 235 samples of meat and meat products (grilled/fried/smoked), seafood and seafood products (grilled/fried/smoked), processed oils, and potatoes showed that 12 samples detected acrylamide in the range of 5.0 – 162.0 µg/kg found in grilled/fried dishes and 5.0 – 4605 µg/kg for fried potatoes. Additionally, 204 samples detected NDMA in all groups in the range of 0.20 – 15.0 µg/kg, and 27 samples detected BaP in the range of 5.2 – 88 µg/kg in grilled/roasted food. Combined with information on food consumption patterns to estimate dietary exposure, four age groups were divided into under 6 years old, 6 – 18 years old, 18 – 50 years old, and over 50 years old, which showed that the consumption of processed foods by age groups was very different. In particular, the age group from 6 to 50 years old was the group that consumed the most of these foods (14.1 – 140 g/day). Specifically, up to 94.4% of people interviewed ate fried meat, 88.8% ate fried seafood and 85% ate fried potatoes. Risk characterization using the margin of exposure (MOE) and Cancer Slope Factor approaches indicate that certain dishes, such as grilled/smoked meat and fish, and deep-fried foods, may pose a significant cancer risk to Vietnamese consumers.
food processed contaminants, chemical hazards, dietary intake, dietary exposure, carcinogenic risk.
[1]. “Obesity Linked to Processed Foods: What to Avoid in Your Diet,” Healthline. [Online]. Available: https://www.healthline.com/health-news/link-betweenprocessed-foods-and-obesity. [Accessed: Oct 12, 2021].
[2]. L. C. Maillard, “‘Action des acides amines sur les sucres; formation de melanoidines par voie méthodique’ [Action of amino acids on sugars. Formation of melanoidins in a methodical way],” Comptes Rendus de I'Académie des Sciences, vol. 154, pp. 66–68, 1912.
[3]. R. A. Scanlan, “Formation and occurrence of nitrosamines in food,” Cancer Research, vol. 43, no. 5 Suppl, pp. 2435s–2440s, 1983.
[4]. D. Mottram, B. Wedzicha, and A. Dodson, “Acrylamide is formed in the Maillard reaction,” Nature, vol. 419, pp. 448–449, 2002.
[5]. H. Alomirah et al., “Benzo[a]pyrene and total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) levels in vegetable oils and fats do not reflect the occurrence of the eight genotoxic PAHs,” Food Additives Contaminants: Part A: Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 869–878, 2010.
[6]. P. Simko, “Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked meat products and smoke flavouring food additives,” Journal Chromatography B: Analytical Technologies Biomedical and Life Sciences, vol. 770, no. 1–2, pp. 3–18, 2002.
[7]. H. Alomirah et al., “Concentrations and dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from grilled and smoked foods,” Food Control, vol. 22, no. 12, pp. 2028–2035, 2011.
[8]. J. A. G. Roach, D. Andrzejewski, M. L. Gay, D. Nortrup, and S. M. Musser, “Rugged LC-MS/MS Survey Analysis for Acrylamide in Foods,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 51, no. 26, pp. 7547–7554, 2003.
[9]. J. Park, L. Kamendulis, M. Friedman, and J. Klaunig, “Acrylamide-Induced Cellular Transformation,” Toxicological Sciences: an official journal of the society of Toxicology, vol. 65, pp. 177–83, 2002.
[10]. R. Andrade, F. G. R. Reyes, and S. Rath, “A method for the determination of volatile N-nitrosamines in food by HS-SPME-GC-TEA,” Food Chemistry, vol. 91, no. 1, pp. 173–179, 2005.
[11]. S. Eerola, I. Otegui, L. Saari, and A. Rizzo, “Application of liquid chromatographyatmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry and tandem mass spectrometry to the determination of volatile nitrosamines in dry sausages,” Food Additives Contaminants, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 270–279, 1998.
[12]. M. A. Friedman, L. H. Dulak, and M. A. Stedham, “A Lifetime Oncogenicity Study in Rats with Acrylamide,” Fundamental and Applied Toxicology, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 95–105, 1995.
[13]. S. S. Herrmann, L. Duedahl-Olesen, T. Christensen, P. T. Olesen, and K. Granby, “Dietary exposure to volatile and non-volatile N-nitrosamines from processed meat products in Denmark,” Food and Chemical Toxicology: an International Journal Published for the Brish Industrial Biological Research Association, vol. 80, pp. 137–143, 2015.
[14]. B. M. Lee and G. A. Shim, “Dietary exposure estimation of benzo[a]pyrene and cancer risk assessment,” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, part A, vol. 70, no. 15–16, pp. 1391–1394, 2007.
[15]. Tran Cao Son, Le Thi Hong Hao, and N.A. Lebedeva-Neservya, “Exposure assessment and risk characterization of N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in the diet of children from 6 to 36 months in Hanoi, Vietnam,” Health Risk Analysis, vol. 3, 2020.
[16]. O. US EPA, “Guidelines for Exposure Assessment.” [Online]. Available: https://www.epa.gov/risk/guidelines-exposure-assessment. [Accessed: Sep 10, 2024].
[17]. O. US EPA, “Exposure Assessment Tools by Routes - Ingestion.” [Online]. Available: https://www.epa.gov/expobox/exposure-assessment-tools-routes-ingestion. [Accessed: Aug. 14, 2024].
[18]. “Vietnam: life expectancy at birth 2023,” Statista. [Online]. Available: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1456668/vietnam-life-expectancy-at-birth/. [Accessed: Sep. 10, 2024].
[19]. “Margin of Exposure | EFSA.” [Online]. Available: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/margin-exposure. [Accessed: Aug. 14, 2024].
[20]. Dennis R. Helsel, “Multivariate Methods for Censored Data,” Statistics for Censored Environmental Data Using Minitab® and R, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 268–296, 2011.
[21]. “Acrylamide in food | EFSA.” [Online]. Available: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/4104. [Accessed: Aug 15, 2024].
[22]. E. P. on C. in the F. C. (EFSA C. Panel) et al., “Risk assessment of N-nitrosamines in food,” EFSA Journal, vol. 21, no. 3, p. e07884, 2023.
[23]. O. US EPA, “Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) CASRN 50-32-8 | DTXSID2020139 | IRIS | US EPA, ORD.” [Online]. Available: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris2/chemicalLanding.cfm?substance_nmbr=136. [Accessed: Aug. 15, 2024].
[24]. “Acrylamide: perspectives from international, national, and regional exposure assessments,” Current Opinion in Food Science, vol. 47, p. 100891, 2022.
[25]. P. J. Song and J. F. Hu, “N-nitrosamines in Chinese foods,” Food and Chemistry Toxicology, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 205–208, 1988.
[26]. S. Hwang et al., “Carcinogenic risk associated with popular Korean dishes: An approach of combined risk assessments using Oral Slope Factor and BMDL10 values,” Food Research International, vol. 125, p. 108530, 2019.
[27]. J. Lee, J.-H. Jeong, S. Park, and K.-G. Lee, “Monitoring and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in processed foods and their raw materials,” Food Control, vol. 92, pp. 286–292, 2018.
[28]. “Calculating Hazard Quotients and Cancer Risk Estimates.” [Online]. Available: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pha-guidance/conducting_scientific_evaluations/ epcs_and_exposure_calculations/hazardquotients_cancerrisk.html. [Accessed: Sep. 11, 2024].
[29]. U. E. N. C. for E. Assessment, “Acrylamide CASRN 79-06-1 | IRIS | US EPA, ORD.” [Online]. Available: https://iris.epa.gov/ChemicalLanding/&substance_nmbr=286. [Accessed: Aug. 15, 2024].
[30]. “n-nitrosodimethylamine.pdf.” Accessed: Aug. 15, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-09/documents/nnitrosodimethylamine.pdf.